1.     Context: The Marco Polo Question

A Description of the World.

That was the original title of the 13^th century travelogue by Marco Polo, the legendary Venetian explorer. Written around 1298, this book is also referred in other English titles such as Book of the Marvels of the World, The Travels of Marco Polo and Il Milione. It depicts his land travels through the Silk Road in going eastward to Asia, and then went back to Europe by sea route landing in the now modern-day Iran. The travelogue’s time frame was between 1271 and 1295. Then barely 17 years old, Marco Polo accompanied his father (Niccolò) and uncle (Maffeo) who were European trading merchants.

A run-away bestseller at that time, it describes to the Europeans the grandeurs, wealth and geographical vastness of the mysterious eastern world. It provided the first comprehensive narratives about the fascinating cultures and technological marvels of Asian countries such as China, Korea, Indonesia, Japan and Sri Lanka. Using the translated term ‘Cauli’ or ‘Kauli’, there was an apparent reference to portions of peninsular Korea. This travelogue significantly portrays Marco Polo’s experiences at the court of Khubilai Khan (Mongol Emperor, grandson of Genghis Khan) in modern-day Beijing, China. (Note that other sources use the spelling ‘Kublai’.) During the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), China was under the Mongol Empire with Khubilai Khan at the helm.

Despite its universal recognition, the book has remained controversial, if not intensively disputed in certain details, after over 700 years. There have been lingering doubts about Marco Polo himself ever being ever physically present in China. In that regard, let’s fast forward to 1995.

Did Marco Polo Go to China?

That’s the title of the controversial book of Dr. Frances Wood, an English historian-cum-librarian. She is known for her writings on Chinese history, particularly about Chinese dynasty and treaty ports. First published in 1995 by the London-based Secker & Warburg, Dr. Wood’s book re-ignited the never-ending argument that Marco Polo never visited China. Moreover, she claimed that he ‘probably never travelled much further than the Polo family’s trading post on the Black Sea and in Constantinople’. Simply told, Marco Polo was a plagiarist who copied his description of China based on accounts from Asian and European merchants who traversed through the Silk Road.

In fairness, Marco Polo never claimed writing himself A Description of the World; it was written by Rustichello da Pisa (a romance writer). Rustichello was his prison companion in Genoa, with whom he relayed his travel stories, who in turn inserted some of his own fancy narratives. Moreover, Marco Polo indeed exaggerated about the importance of their family’s involvement in certain warfare events such as the siege of Xiangyang.

At its core, Dr. Wood’s thesis supported the ‘skeptical’ view of minority scholars. They argued primarily about the apparent omissions and/or obvious mistakes in Marco’s book about the important natural, technological and socio-cultural features of China. These include – but not limited to – the following: absence of reference about the Great Wall; culture of foot-binding and tea drinking; inaccurate description of the Yellow River’s course; and no description of the Chinese writing system.

Upon the book’s press release, Dr. Wood was deluged with an avalanche of criticisms from the leading academics and scholars. They disputed that while there are certain inconsistencies in Marco Polo’s accounts, there are still overwhelming evidence that he indeed went to China. The essay by Professor Morris Rossabi, Columbia University (http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/pop/polo/mp_essay.htm) claims that the “omission in a travel account cannot disprove the veracity of a journey”. Dr. Igor de Rachewiltz of the Australian National University (https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/41883/1/Marcopolo.html) argued that “Marco’s book, with its immense wealth of information, speaks for itself”.

Did Michael Pido Go to North Korea?

I use Dr. Wood’s controversial book about Marco Polo as a metaphorical reference regarding my visits to North Korea. Colleagues never questioned that I obtained my master’s degree in England and that I completed my doctorate degree in Australia. They also believed that I visited some European countries (such as Denmark, France and Norway), as well as Sudan in Africa, and that I had been to all southeast Asian countries, except Timor Leste.

Yet eyebrows often rise whenever I mention that I went to North Korea in 2001: not once, but twice. Most often, there is a tacit body language of doubt. Otherwise, there is a polite expression of uncertainty as if I was any or all of the following: (1) simply jesting; (2) just bragging about my foreign trips; and (3) mixed it up with my trip in South Korea.

One time, a fellow Filipino acquaintance demanded that I show him just any single solo or a group picture – if not a video clip – of myself while in North Korea (Figure 1). Unfortunately, I had nothing to show, up to this very day. Had I been a clairvoyant who could predict that I would become a travel blogger 20 years later, I would have done a lot of selfies!

As a travelogue writer without a photo of himself, this prelude blog is divided into eight sections. After this introductory section, what follows is a brief historical narrative of the country until the Korean Empire’s end in 1910.  Thirdly, I provide a synopsis of the Japanese occupation from 1910-1945. This is followed by the 1948 division of the Korean Peninsula into two separate countries.

In the fifth section, I briefly introduce North Korea as a distinct country. Afterwards, I describe my employment with a United Nation (UN) organization and the work that I did there. The seventh section gives an overview of my two trips in 2001, more specifically in the capital city of Pyongyang and the cultural port city of Nampho. In my closing section, I wrap up with my four prospective blogs about this certainly unique – and unforgettable country.

2.     A Historical Glimpse of Korea

Up until the 1945 end of World War II (WWII), Korea was one unified country. It has evolved from a complex conglomeration of kingdoms, feudal states, dynasties and colonial rule. Similar to other royalties around the world – as family members vied for alliances, control and power – the then Korean monarchy was fraught with assassinations, divided loyalties, political upheavals, and intriguing royal court drama. Watching contemporary Korean TV series may provide you with tidbits of these royal intrigues.

The present name ‘Korea’ is derived from the name of Goryeo, which was first used in the early 5^th century by Goguryeo Kingdom. This was between year 37 BCE and 668 CE. (BCE that stands for ‘before the common era’ is more popularly known as Before Christ, while common era or CE is synonymous with Christ’s after death or AD). Goryeo was pronounced by the roving Persian merchants as ‘Korea’ that led to its modern pronunciation; the contemporary spelling of Korea first appeared in Hendrick Hamel’s travelogues in the late 17^th century, who was then associated with the Dutch East India Company. During the reign of Gwanggaeto the Great, Goguryeo was a great power in East Asia that ruled most parts of the Korean Peninsula.

In the year 918, the Goryeo Dynasty (also called Koryŏ) was founded, succeeding Goguryeo Kingdom. It unified much of the ruling class of the Later Three Kingdoms period. The Goryeo Dynasty ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Parts of the dynasty’s territorial lands included the central and southern portions of Manchuria as well as parts of the Russian Far East and Inner Mongolia.

Joseon Dynasty followed after Goryeo Dynasty; the former had become the nation’s longest-ruling dynasty. Established by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392, it lasted for over 500 years. Throughout this historical period, the Joseon Dynasty maintained a policy of isolationism from the outside world. Korea’s main interaction then was with China’s Qing Dynasty and occasional trading with Japan. Hence, such Joseon Dynasty’s isolationist policy had contributed to it being originally dubbed as the ‘hermit kingdom’.

Foreign invasions, if not incursions, were part of Korean history. These included the Japanese invasions in the 1590s, as well as the first and second Manchu invasions, in 1627 and 1636–1637, respectively.  European colonial powers likewise expressed economic and religious interests in the country. In 1866, the Second French Empire sent a punitive naval expedition in retaliation for the earlier execution of seven French Catholic missionaries. In the same year, Russian ships appeared on Korea’s east coast whereby its envoys demanded trading and residency rights.

During the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, though, Korea had slowly come under the Japanese sphere of influence. The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 paved the way for the initial integration of Korea’s governmental system and economy with Japan. The Joseon Dynasty was eventually replaced by the Korean Empire on 13 October 1897. On that date, King Gojong (also called Kojong or Emperor Gwangmu) as the dynasty’s 26^th monarch proclaimed the Korean Empire as an independent unified Korean state – making him the last ruling King of Joseon Dynasty and the first Emperor of Korea. Born in 1852, Emperor Gojong engineered the Gwangmu Reform; also attributed to him were the partial modernization and westernization of Korea’s economy, various industries, education system, military, and land property rights.

3.     Japanese Colonial Rule and End of Royal Dynasty/Family

As a continuation of Joseon Dynasty established in 1392, the Korean Empire stood until 1910. The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 established the latter as a protectorate. Hence, Korea had become a dependent territory; although it retained local autonomy over most internal affairs, Korea had recognized Japan’s suzerainty.

Due to Japanese coercion, Emperor Gojong was deposed on 19 July 1907. He was replaced by his second son, King Sunjong (27^th monarch of the Joseon Dynasty). The Japanese forced Sunjong to accede to the bilateral Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907. This treaty allowed the Japanese government to get involved in Korea’s administrative machinery, including the appointment of Japanese nationals into high-ranking government ministerial posts.

More of a figurehead since 1907, King Sunjong was eventually ousted as the Korean Emperor-King in 1910. Given the Japan-Korean Treaty of 1910, the Joseon Dynasty (royal family) came to an abrupt and inglorious ending. The legality of the above-cited 1910 treaty was later disputed since Emperor Sunjong refused to sign the treaty, a requirement under Korean law. In lieu, the two treaty signatories were Resident General Count Terauchi Masatake, on behalf of Japan, and Prime Minister Ye Wanyong, on behalf of Korea.

Following its annexation in 1910 – that lasted until the end of WWII in 1945 – Korea became part of the Empire of Japan, with the Japanese Emperor at the helm. The Japanese Governor-General based in Keijō (modern day Seoul) ruled Korea during this period. (Historically, the Empire of Japan existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-WWII 1947 constitution that was orchestrated by General Douglas McArthur, the American military administrator).

Three Japanese emperors (122^nd through 124^th) were involved during this annexation period: (1) Emperor Meiji (also called Meiji the Great) reigned from 3 February 1867 until his death on 30 July 1912, who presided over Japan’s transformation from an isolationist, feudal state to an industrialized world power; (2) Emperor Taishō (personal name was Yoshihito) as the second ruler of the Empire of Japan from 30 July 1912 until his death in 1926; and (3) Emperor Shōwa (more popularly known by his English name Hirohito who ruled from 25 December 1926 until 2 May 1947). During the Japanese rule, Korea’s ‘Japanization’ was given emphasis; industrialization was accelerated and there was massive infrastructure development particularly of rail system, road networks and sea ports.

Majority of the Koreans, though, resisted the Japanese colonial rule and established the Korean Provisional Government (KPG) as a government-in-exile. Initially based in Shanghai, China, the KPG spearheaded the Korean independence or resistant movement. Chinilpa is a derogatory term that denotes ethnic Koreans who collaborated with Imperial Japan during its colonial rule from 1910 to 1945.

4.     The Great Divide

When Japan formally surrendered on 15 August 1945 – following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki – it lost its imperial control over Korea. As a result, the country was divided on September 1945 into two zones along the popularly called 38^th parallel with the United Nations (UN) steering the plans for a trusteeship administration. The US occupied the southern part; meanwhile, the then Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) occupied the northern portion.

Political brokerages and international negotiations for reunification, however, proved unsuccessful in the end. Thus, two distinct and geographically separate governments were established in 1948. The socialist government (under Kim Il-sung) was formed in the north backed by China and USSR. On the other hand, a capitalist country was established in the south (under Syngman Rhee) with support of the WWII Allied Powers primarily led by the US. Foreign occupation and/control of Korea through the years had resulted in mass poverty and social disorder.

The Korean War began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea crossed the 38^th parallel with military support from USSR and China. There is a contrary view, though, that South Korean troops crossed first deep to the north. With sanction from the UN, the largest military contingent that supported South Korea came from US (around 600,000 troops), followed by UK (some 14,000 troops). (My home country, the Philippines, sent over 1,000 military personnel). General Douglas McArthur as the US military commander in Japan orchestrated the Korean War. It is among the bloodiest war in modern history with an estimated of over half a million deaths and missing among the armed combatants – as well as between two to three million civilian deaths.

The fighting lasted over three years until the Korean Armistice Agreement (KMA) on 27 July 1953. The KMA resulted in a formal armed ceasefire and established a demilitarized zone (DMZ). As a border barrier, the DMZ stretches some 250 kilometers (km) long and about 4 km wide, which divides the Korean Peninsula roughly in half. Likewise, the DMZ serves as a buffer zone. Overall, the Korean War’s result was ‘inconclusive’: no formal peace treaty was ever signed between the two countries. Up to the present, both North Korea and South Korea claim to be the legitimate government of the entire Korean Peninsula and adjacent islands.

5.     Overview of North Korea

The acronym DPRK – that stands for Democratic People’s Republic of Korea – constitutes the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. (In this blog, the country names DPRK, DPR Korea and North Korea are used interchangeably to refer to one and the same country.) Following a number of provisional governments, the DPRK was formally established on 9 September 1948. With an estimated territorial jurisdiction of some 120,540 km², it is ranked the 97^th largest country in terms of land area.

These are the DPRK’s borders (Figure 2): (1) to the north are China and Russia, at the Yalu (Amnok) and Tumen rivers; (2) to the south is South Korea at the DMZ at the 38^th parallel; (3) to the west are Korea Bay and China’s Yellow Sea; and (4) to the eastern border is the Sea of Japan. (Note that the Sea of Japan is referred by the Koreans as the ‘East Sea’.) Its current top leader is Kim Jong-un, who is the son of the late Kim Jong-il, and the grandson of the founding father Kim Il-sung.

Located inland, Pyongyang (largest city) serves as the country’s capital. (South Korea is officially called as Republic of Korea or ROK). Only the DPRK has retained the moniker ‘hermit kingdom’ in news media, which I described earlier as originally intended for the Joseon Dynasty. Former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in 2009 were among those who used the term. Unlike two decades ago, most of the country’s demographic profiles are now readily accessed through the internet (e.g., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea). Thus, I shall no longer dwell on details of these information.

Its form of government is labeled as an ‘independent socialist state’ or a ‘one-party republic’. The Supreme People’s Assembly (SPA), being chaired by Kim Jong-un himself, serves as the legislative body. The dominant political party is the Workers’ Party of Korea, which also leads the reunification efforts. As a socialist country, the resources are owned by the government and the means of production are managed through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms. Hence, most services are either subsidized or state-funded that include education, food production, healthcare, human settlements and transport.

The estimated 2018 population was around 25 million people, making it the world’s 55^th most populous country. About a third of its population (over nine million) are either active or reserve military personnel. In 2014, the per capita income was estimated at US$1,800. Its armed forces have sophisticated weapons and is known to have nuclear capability. North Korea is a member of several international bodies that include the UN since 17 September 1991, Non-Aligned Movement and G77 – as well as regional organizations such as the ASEAN Regional Forum.

6.     Overview of PEMSEA

Because of my employment with the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), I was able to visit North Korea. Details about PEMSEA may be accessed through its website at http://www.pemsea.org/. PEMSEA is an intergovernmental organization that operates in East Asia to foster and sustain healthy and resilient oceans, coasts, communities and economies across the region.

Back in early 2000, PEMSEA was a Regional Programme with main funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Two UN agencies were involved with PEMSEA: the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO). I served as the National Technical Officer for Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) from April 2000 until March 2002. My job responsibilities included the following: coordinating activities at national demonstration sites particularly in Cambodia, DPR Korea, Indonesia and Vietnam; providing technical assistance in program planning and project development, training, environmental assessments and preparation of technical reports and publications; and serving as Issue Editor of Tropical Coasts, a magazine for coastal managers and users.

Briefly, the ICM approach aims to achieve sustainable development of coastal and marine areas and at the same time address the limitations of sectoral approach to coastal governance. Although an academic, I don’t want to get entangled in the discourse about the ICM’s definition. Hence, I shall simply adopt PEMSEA’s description that “ICM addresses the governance of human activities affecting the sustainable use of goods and services generated by coastal and marine ecosystems” (http://www.pemsea.org).

Since 1994, PEMSEA has been establishing ICM sites at various locations in several East Asian countries. One of those sites is Nampho in DPR Korea. (Some literature sources use the spelling ‘Nampo’.)

7.     Trip’s Overview

I reiterate that I have no personal photos or videos to brag about my two trips in Pyongyang and Nampho (Figure 3). The main documentary evidence I may show, though, were my visas. Please check carefully if these are indeed legitimate North Korean visas!

My first trip was in January 2001. I was extremely fortunate that Dr. Chua Thia-Eng, then PEMSEA’s Regional Program Director, had trusted me to accompany him. Dr. Chua (now PEMSEA’s Chair Emeritus) is acknowledged by many practitioners as among the foremost authority on ICM worldwide, if not the father of ICM in East Asia. We went there for a major national event – the ICM Project Launching in Pyongyang. Hence, it was well attended by many DPRK dignitaries. I secured my visa in Beijing, China (Figure 4).

A close North Korean colleague (I shall just refer to him as Mr. Moon) whom I encountered in many PEMSEA gatherings in the Philippines warmly welcomed us at Pyongyang’s international airport. I recall him saying, “Dr. Michael Pido, you are one of the very few Filipinos who have ever set their feet at DPR Korea.” To this day, two decades later, I wonder if there are at least 1,000 Filipinos who have ever visited this fascinating country.

My second trip was in September 2001 (Figure 5). This time, I was by myself: a one-man trainor. I traveled all the way to the ICM Demonstration Site in Nampho. This cultural port city is some 42 kilometers away southwest of Pyongyang. I single-handedly conducted a series of ICM-related trainings such as coastal profiling, preparation of Coastal Strategy and Integrated Information Management System.

8.     Upcoming Blogs

This blog is just but a prelude that I had been to North Korea – not once, but twice – within a nine-month period in 2001. I shall share later four thematic blogs about my reflections and experiences while there. Although I went there largely to work as PEMSEA’s ICM Officer, I considered simply being there 20 years ago as not only a unique work opportunity but an incredible travel adventure as well. Certainly, not many Filipinos (or Asians for that matter) have had such kind of once-in-a-lifetime experience. Let me now briefly describe my four upcoming blogs.

The first blog will be an academic discourse about juche. The official ideology of DPR Korea, juche roughly translates to ‘self-reliance’.  This ideology and/or philosophy has been attributed to Kim Il-sung (1912–1994), the founding father of North Korea in 1948. A core tenet is that by becoming self-reliant, true socialism may be achieved by a country.

The second blog shall reflect on my impression about Pyongyang as its capital city. Often dubbed as a ‘worker’s paradise’, Pyongyang had comparatively beautiful and orderly landscape compared to most capital cities in East Asia. I had always thought that the winter in southeast England was bitterly cold. The minus 40⁰C I experienced in Pyongyang had even surpassed that!

Thirdly, I shall focus on Nampho as the ICM Demonstration Site. In the earlier section, I mentioned that I undertook there a series of technical trainings related to coastal management. I shall narrate my recollected impressions about this cultural port. Among others, I shall describe my ‘surreal’ feeling for being there during a very historic, world-changing event. I am referring to the 9/11 attack that changed US history, in particular, and the world’s religion-cum-international security debate, in general.

The fourth blog will be about my incredible ‘police encounter’ – that happened between Nampho and Pyongyang – with an astonishing plot straight from an American Hollywood movie. Among my experiences there, this certainly is the most unforgettable. Whenever I recall this experience, I still feel a certain sense of ‘chill’ in my spine. I am saving this blog to be the exclamation point!

But I am certainly willing to do a blogging compromise. If I receive 500 or more blog requests, I will immediately put on hold all other blogs that are lined up next. I will write this ‘police encounter’ at once – and upload it in my website within the next two weeks!

If given a chance, I absolutely would like to go back there again. It must have changed a lot over the last two decades since 2001. If there is only one country that I may be able to visit when this COVID-19 pandemic is over, without an iota doubt, North Korea would be my unanimous choice!

Acknowledgment: I sincerely thank three very close friends and colleagues who generously reviewed my drafts; they have preferred to remain anonymous. Their feedbacks were invaluable in my subsequent revision. Any error or inconsistency in this blog is solely my responsibility.

Author’s Note: To make the posted blog interactive, I request you provide feedback to share to other readers. You may also send me an email at: mdpido@huescribbler.com